Background: Thailand has been recognized as a regional leader in its response to the human immunodeficiency virus/acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (HIV/AIDS) epidemic. However, low rates of voluntary testing, late entry into healthcare and delayed treatment continue to be major challenges. Stigma associated with HIV has been cited as a significant barrier preventing a successful and co-ordinated response. HIV-related stigma is known to exist among Thai communities. However, less is known about the attitudes of healthcare workers towards people living with HIV, and how this impacts health-seeking behaviours. This paper considers recent literature from Thailand (2007-2012), which discusses how HIV-related stigma affects health-seeking behaviour, as well as experiences of HIV-related stigma in healthcare settings. Materials and Methods: Information was collected from electronic databases and websites using the search terms 'HIV stigma healthcare'. Literature published in English, from 2007 onwards, discussing the relationship between HIV-related stigma and health-seeking behaviour, or HIV-related stigma in healthcare settings in Thailand was included in this review. Results: There is scarcity of information assessing the forms of stigmatizing attitudes known to exist within the Thai healthcare sector. Literature highlights that key affected populations feel most stigmatized against. Interactions and negative experiences in government healthcare settings have contributed to a reduced engagement around seeking healthcare. Discussion and Conclusions: More research is needed on HIV-related stigma in healthcare settings in Thailand. Evidence suggests that interventions at the policy, environmental and individual levels are required to address stigma and protect the health and rights of people living with HIV/AIDS.

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Introduction: Despite its simplicity, efficiency and reliability, Sri Lanka has not used the Annual Risk of Tuberculosis Infection (ARTI) to assess the prevalence and efficiency of tuberculosis (TB) control. Hence, a national tuberculin survey was conducted to estimate the ARTI. Materials and Methods: A school-based, cross-sectional tuberculin survey of 4352 children aged 10 years irrespective of their BCG vaccination or scar status was conducted. The sample was selected from urban, rural and estate strata using two-stage cluster sampling technique. In the first stage, sectors representing three strata were selected and, in the second stage, participants were selected from 120 clusters. Using the mode of the tuberculin reaction sizes (15 mm) and the mirror-image technique, the prevalence and the ARTI were estimated. Results: The prevalence of TB estimated for urban, rural and estate sectors were 13.9%, 2.2% and 2.3%, respectively. The national estimate of the prevalence of TB was 4.2% (95% CI = 1.7-7.2%). ARTI for the urban, rural and estate sectors were 1.4%, 0.2% and 0.2%, respectively, and the national estimate was 0.4% (95% CI = 0.2-0.7%). The estimated annual burden of newly infected or re-infected TB cases with the potential of developing into the active disease (400/100 000 population) was nearly 10-fold higher than the national new case detection rate (48/100 000 population). Conclusion: The national estimate of ARTI was lower than the estimates for many developing countries. The high-estimated risk for the urban sector reflected the need for intensified, sector-specific focus on TB control activities. This underscores the need to strengthen case detection. Repeat surveys are essential to determine the annual decline rate of infection.

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The burden of dengue and its potential threat to global health are now globally recognized, with 2.5 billion people at risk worldwide. The pathogenesis of severe dengue is particularly intriguing with the involvement of different immune factors. Also, the epidemiology of dengue in South-East Asia is undergoing a change in the human host, the dengue virus and the vector bionomics. Shift in affected age groups, sex differences and expansion to rural areas are evident, while the virulence and genotype of the virus determine the severity and time interval between sequential infections. The Aedes mosquito, a potent and adaptive vector, has evolved in longevity and survival, affected by seasonality and climate variability, socio-cultural and economic factors of human habitation and development. This review provides insights into the changing epidemiology and its factors in South-East Asia, one of the most important epicentres of dengue in the world, highlighting the major factors influencing these rapid changes. Addressing the changes may help mitigate the challenges in the current dengue control and prevention efforts.

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Background and Objectives: Water and sanitation are major public health issues exacerbated by rapid population growth, limited resources, disasters and environmental depletion. This study was undertaken to study the influencing factors for household water quality improvement for reducing diarrhoea in resource-limited areas. Materials and Methods: Data were collected from articles and reviews from relevant randomized controlled trials, new articles, systematic reviews and meta-analyses from PubMed, World Health Organization (WHO), United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF) and WELL Resource Centre For Water, Sanitation And Environmental Health. Discussion: Water quality on diarrhoea prevention could be affected by contamination during storage, collection and even at point-of-use. Point-of-use water treatment (household-based) is the most cost-effective method for prevention of diarrhoea. Chemical disinfection, filtration, thermal disinfection, solar disinfection and flocculation and disinfection are five most promising household water treatment methodologies for resource-limited areas. Conclusion: Promoting household water treatment is most essential for preventing diarrhoeal disease. In addition, the water should be of acceptable taste, appropriate for emergency and non-emergency use.

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Background: Growth parameters at birth are important for clinical decision-making. In Sri Lanka, the data from the World Health Organization (WHO) Multicentre Growth Reference Study (MGRS) are used to interpret these measurements. Materials and Methods: A descriptive cross-sectional study was conducted between September and October 2010 in hospitals of Gampaha district, Sri Lanka. The weight, length and head circumference of all normal-term babies born in the Gampaha district during this period were measured within 8 h of birth using standard techniques. Measurements were taken by medical graduates trained and supervised by a consultant paediatrician. Socio-demographic data were obtained using an interviewer-administered questionnaire. Results: Of the 2215 babies recruited, 1127 were males. The mean birth weight, mean length and mean head circumference at birth were 2.92 kg, 49.1 and 33.6 cm, respectively. Boys weighed and measured more than girls in all parameters, but the differences were not statistically significant. Growth parameters of babies included in this study deviated from that in the MGRS data. Mean values of MGRS data were between 75th and 90th centiles of this study population. Birth order, family income and maternal education were significantly (P < 0.01) associated with growth parameters. Contrary to common belief, growth parameters continued to increase progressively up to 41 weeks. Maternal age less than 20 years or more than 35 years was negatively associated with birth weight (P < 0.01). Conclusions: Growth parameters of new-born babies deviated significantly from the values of the MGRS data. Growth characteristics of one population may not be applicable to another population due to variations in maternal, genetic and socio-economic factors. Using growth charts not applicable to a population will result in wrong interpretations.

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Sri Lanka took a policy decision to integrate leprosy services into the general health services (GHS) in 1999. This paper aims to summarize the emergence of new, specific challenges and how they were overcome during the integration of leprosy services to the GHS in a remote, leprosy endemic district in Sri Lanka. In this article, the regional epidemiologist as the team leader describes the principles used for transition to an effective integrated model of leprosy services from a centralized leprosy control model in the district. In addition, rationale for integration is viewed from the epidemiological and operational perspectives. National and district leprosy epidemiological data from secondary sources are also reviewed for corroborating the effectiveness of integration. Challenges surfaced were mainly related to the transfer of ownership of the programme, selection of appropriate service providing institutions easily accessible to clients, sustainability of leprosy services at the GHS, ensuring participation of all stakeholders in capacity building programmes and co-ordination of patient care in the absence of a dermatologist in the district. An empowered district team leader with specified roles and responsibilities, his sound technical and managerial know how and ability to translate 'team work' concept to practice were found to be essential for successful implementation of integration. Decision-making powers at the district level and flexibility to introduce new, area-specific changes to the centrally prepared core activities of integration were also vital to overcome locally surfaced challenges.

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Background: There is an enormous health burden caused by the co-prevalence of tuberculosis (TB) and tobacco use in India. This intervention study was undertaken in district Vadodara, Gujarat, India to promote tobacco cessation by integrating 'brief advice' for tobacco cessation in TB patients who were tobacco users and registered for treatment under TB control programme, based on the tested strategies advocated by World Health Organization (WHO) and the International Union against Tuberculosis and Lung Diseases (The Union). Materials and Methods: Brief advice for tobacco cessation based on five A's, advocated by the WHO and the UNION was incorporated into the on-going TB Control programme in India in the year 2010. The tools were developed for education, training and capturing data. All the registered TB patients receiving directly observed treatment short-course (DOTS) who used tobacco in any form were offered brief advice during routine interaction for treatment. Results: A total of 46.3% of TB patients, predominantly males (89.6% males and 10.3% females) were current users of tobacco; 39.1% used smokeless tobacco, 35.9% were smokers and 25% were dual users, that is, smoked as well as used smokeless tobacco. At the end of treatment, of the 67.3% patients who were offered brief advice, quit tobacco use, 18.2% re-lapsed while 14.5% were lost to follow-up. Conclusion: A significant numbers of TB patients use tobacco with adverse impact on TB control programmes. Our study shows that it is feasible to introduce 'brief advice' strategy as a cost effective intervention for tobacco cessation among TB patients with careful monitoring.

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Background: There is very limited information available on HIV related orphans and vulnerable children (HIV-OVC) in Myanmar. Hence, the objective of this study was to identify and compare the social, education and health consequences among HIV-OVC and children from the families not related to HIV in the same neighbourhoods (neighbouring children). Materials and Methods: A cross-sectional, comparative survey was carried out in three geographical locations. Face-to-face interviews were conducted with guardians and children using a pretested structured questionnaire including Strength and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ) for behavioural problems. Outcome measures were compared using Chi-squared test or 't' test or 'Rank-sum' test. Results: A total of 300 HIV-OVC and 300 neighbouring children were included. A greater number of HIV-OVC than their neighbouring children have experienced family displacement from their original homes (27% and 1%), child/sibling displacement (20% and 2.7%) and family dispersion (20.3% and 1.3%) (P < 0.001). More guardians of HIV-OVC reported that the disease affected their children's education (28.2% and 16.3%; P < 0.05). Fifteen per cent of HIV-OVC and 10.5% of neighbouring children had to work for their families (P < 0.05). Psychological condition was assessed on emotional, conduct, hyperactivity/inattention, peer relationship and prosocial behaviour. A greater number of HIV-OVC were noted in the abnormal category with regard to hyperactivity and prosocial behaviours (P < 0.05). Conclusions: Higher incidence of social and psychological consequences among HIV-OVC call for more community support programmes and creation of job opportunities to minimize social impact in the affected families. Future programmes should focus on counselling of HIV-OVC and providing psychological support.

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Introduction: Exposure to second-hand smoke (SHS) is a serious public health concern. The Indian smoke-free legislation 'Prohibition of Smoking in Public Places Rules, 2008' prohibits smoking in public places, including workplaces. Objective: To measure the status of compliance to legal provisions that protects the public against harms of SHS exposure, identifies the potential areas of violations and informs policy makers for strengthening enforcement measures. Design: A cross-sectional survey in 1401 public places across 11 district headquarters in Himachal Pradesh, India, using a compliance guide developed by partners of the Bloomberg initiatives to reduce tobacco use. Results: In 1401 public places across 11 district headquarters, 42.8% public places had signage; in 84.2% public places, no smoking was observed and in 83.7%, there was absence of smoking accessories such as ashtray, matchbox and lighter . Tobacco litter like cigarette butts was absent in 64.7% of the public places. Overall, at the state level, there was more than 80% compliance on at least three of the five indicators. Among all categories of public places, educational institutions and offices demonstrated highest compliance, whereas most frequently visited public places, eateries and accommodation facilities had least compliance. Conclusions: The compliance to 'Prohibition of Smoking in Public Places Rules, 2008' was variable in various district headquarters of Himachal Pradesh. This study identified the potential areas of violations that need attention from enforcement agencies and policymakers.

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Generic medicines are a key strategy used by governments and third-party payers to contain medicines costs and improve the access to essential medicines. This strategy represents an important opportunity provided by the global intellectual property regimes to discover and develop copies of original products marketed by innovator companies once the patent protection term is over. While there is an extensive experience regarding generic medicines policies in developed countries, this evidence may not translate to developing countries. The generic medicines policies workshop at the Asia Pacific Conference on National Medicines Policies 2012 provided an important opportunity to discuss and document country-specific initiatives for improving access to and the rational of use of generic medicines in the Asia Pacific region. Based on the identified barriers and enablers to implementation of generic medicines policies in the region, a set of future action plans and recommendations has been made.

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Background: This study was taken up to identify the main types of low birth weight (LBW) for the development of weight for gestational age charts relevant to the country/regional level for the formulation of preventive strategies. Materials and Methods: A sample of mothers registered by Public Health Midwives (PHMs) from two Medical Officers of Health (MOH) areas in Colombo district were followed up until delivery in five selected hospitals. Period of gestation (POG) was assessed between 10 and 12 weeks using ultrasonography. Records of 474 mother/newborn pairs were used for development of gestational age-related birth weight charts for each sex and POG. Mothers with one or more risk factors for LBW were excluded. Mothers with POG less than 38 weeks and more than 40 weeks were limited. Information on all possible risk factors contributing to LBW were assessed. Results: Incidence of small for gestational age (SGA) assessed using the 10 ^th centile value for each POG, was 19.0% for males and 18.0% for females. Percentages of symmetrical and asymmetrical SGA newborns were 72.1% and 27.9%, respectively. Conclusion: The charts were developed paying attention to all methodological aspects that highlighted the key issues relevant to development of weight for gestational age charts in a developing country setting. As action was taken to minimize the biases introduced by such issues, the charts developed could be used for assessment of incidence and risk factors for SGA until charts based on national level data are available.

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Effective national legislation is critical to support the activities of a Medicines Regulatory Authority. However, the law is an under-recognized mechanism for managing issues in the implementation of access to medicines and other medicines policy goals. Regulations are a more flexible tool, have legal effect and the advantage that they can be created or changed without the need to go to the Parliament. Closer collaboration between the health and legal sectors is important as is political commitment for enforcement of the law. Some regional case studies illustrate the opportunities to use the law as an effective tool to implement medicine policies and to meet access to medicine challenges.

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